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发表于 2023-5-8 09:38
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后记
在艾米·诺特去世二十多年后,物理学家们才开始充分利用定理 II 的力量。内部对称性可以产生相互作用的观念由杨振宁和米尔斯(R. Mills)[52]付诸于实践,他们试图从同位旋对称中推导出核子之间强相互作用的理论。他们想知道,在时空的每一点上,是否不可能独立地选择同位旋约定,就像我们局域地设置量子力学波函数的相位约定来导出量子电动力学一样。数学构造是这样的:对称性意味着一种守恒的同位旋流(isospin current),无质量矢量场之间相互作用来传递核子间的力。这与现实世界不符。正如物理学中的许多创意一样,第一次应用它们时并不奏效,但想法被保留下来。我们现在已经发现了如何成功地应用这一思想——在夸克和胶子之间的强相互作用的量子色动力学(Quantum ChromoDynamics,QCD)理论中,在电弱理论中,规范对称性必须隐藏起来。
参考文献及注释
[1] 克莱因因其克莱因曲面(Flache)——被误译为克莱因瓶(Flasche)——的概念而于大众科学文化中闻名。
[2] Emmy Noether. Invariante Variationsprobleme. Gott. Nachr., pages 235–257, 1918. http://bit.ly/2GQyfsm; and Invariant Variational Problems. In Yvette Kosmann-Schwarzbach and Bertram E. Schwarzbach, editors, The Noether Theorems: Invariance and Conservation Laws in the Twentieth Century, pages 3–22. Springer, New York, 2011. doi: 10.1007/978-0-387-87868-3_1
[3] F. Klein. Uber die Differentialgesetze für die Erhaltung von Impuls und Energie in der Einsteinschen Gravitationstheorie. Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen. Mathematischphysikalische Klasse. Nachrichten, pages 171–189, 1918. http://bit.ly/2VsEnKK
[4] David Hilbert. Mathematical problems. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc., 8:437–479, 1902. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1902-00923-3. Translated from Göttinger Nachrichten, 1900, pp. 253-297; Archiv der Mathernatik und Physik, 3d ser., vol. 1 (1901), pp. 44-63 and 213-237.
[5] Summary of Emmy Noether’s report to the German Mathematics Club, Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung Mitteilungen und Nachrichten vol 27, part 2, p.47 (1918).
[6] A skeletal but useful reference is E. L. integrals, including the familiar conservation laws 6 shown in Table 1. Hill. Hamilton’s principle and the conservation theorems of mathematical physics. Rev. Mod. Phys., 23:253–260, 1951. doi: 10.1103/RevModPhys.23.253.
[7] For an example derivation, see Chapter 2 of Chris Quigg. Gauge Theories of the Strong, Weak, and Electromagnetic Interactions. Princeton University Press, Princeton, second edition, 2013.
[8] Emmy Noether. Gesammelte Abhandlungen=Collected papers. Nathan Jacobson, editor; Springer-Verlag, Berlin New York, 1983. See pages 23–25.
[9] General coordinate invariance gives rise to the Bianchi identities that cause the energy conservation law to seem trivial. Energy conservation arises from the symmetry, as explained in Katherine Brading. A Note on General Relativity, Energy Conservation, and Noether’s Theorems. Einstein Stud., 11:125–135, 2005. doi: 10.1007/0-8176-4454-7_8. The canonical modern treatment is Richard L. Arnowitt, Stanley Deser, and Charles W. Misner. The Dynamics of General Relativity. Gen. Rel. Grav., 40:1997–2027, 2008. doi: 10.1007/s10714-008-0661-1, arXiv:gr-qc/0405109.
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[11] Garrett Birkhoff and M. K. Bennett. Felix Klein and His “Erlanger Programm”. In William Aspray and Philip Kitcher, editors, History and Philosophy of Modern Mathematics: Volume XI, pages 145–176. University of Minnesota Press,1988. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/j.cttttp0k.9
[12] The Particle Data Group’s Table of Clebsch–Gordan coefficients, pdg.lbl.gov/2018/reviews/rpp2018-rev-clebsch-gordan-coefs.pdf.
[13] For a brief account of the early years, see Emiliana P. Noether and Gottfried E. Noether. Emmy Noether in Erlangen and Gottingen. In Bhama Srinivasan and Judith Sally, editors, Emmy Noether in Bryn Mawr: proceedings of a symposium, pages 133–137. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1983.
[14] In 1898, the Erlangen Academic Senate held that the “admission of women would overthrow all academic order.” See the Appendix for some examples of the integration of women into American universities.
[15] For a detailed account (in German), see Cordula Tollmien, “Das mathematische Pensum hat sie sich durch Privatunterricht angeeignet” — Emmy Noethers zielstrebiger Weg an die Universitat, in Mathematik und Gender 5, 1–12 (2016), Tagungsband zur Doppeltagung Frauen in der Mathematikgeschichte+ Herbsttreffen Arbeitskreis Frauen und Mathematik (edited by Andrea Blunck, Renate Motzer, Nicola Ostwald), Franzbecker-Verlag für Didaktik http://www.cordula-tollmien.de/pdf/tollmiennoether2016.pdf.
[16] J. J. O’Connor and E. F. Robertson. Ernst Sigismund Fischer, MacTutor History of Mathematics. http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Fischer.html, 2006.
[17] Benno Artmann, “Hochburg der Mathematik,” in Georgia Augusta (2008) http://bit.ly/2GQmQZL, pp. 14–23.
[18] Felix Klein, Seminar-Protokolle, http://www.claymath.org/publications/klein-protokolle. For a brief tour, see Eugene Chislenko and Yuri Tschinkel,“The Felix Klein Protocols,” Notices Amer. Math. Soc. 54, 961–970, (2007), http://www.ams.org/notices/200708/tx070800960p.pdf
[19] Norbert Schappacher. Edmund Göttingen mathematician Edmund Landau 19: Landau’s Göttingen: From the Life and Death of a Great Mathematical Center. Math. Intelligencer, 13(4):12, 1991. http://irma.math.unistra.fr/~sch ... s/1991b_Landau.pdf.
[20] For the full German text, see Cordula distracting to the students.” Tollmien, “Weibliches Genie: Frau und Mathematiker: Emmy Noether,” in Georgia Augusta (2008) http://bit.ly/2GQmQZL, pp. 38–44.
[21] Letter from the Ministry of Education, to Gottingen. The reply from the Ministry of Education 21 exhibits the Edelstein Collection, the National Library of Israel, http://bit.ly/2BFZHDs. English translation at https://blog.nli.org.il/en/noether/.
[22] H. Weyl. Gravitation und Elektrizitat. Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin (Math. Phys.), 1918:465. English translation in L. O’Raifeartaigh, The Dawning of Gauge Theory. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1997, pp. 24–37.
[23] See §3.1 of H. A. Kastrup. On the Advancements of Conformal Transformations and their Associated Symmetries in Geometry and Theoretical Physics. Annalen Phys., 17:631–690, 2008. doi: 10.1002/andp.200810324, arXiv:0808.2730.
[24] See §3.1 of H. A. Kastrup. On the Advancements of Conformal Transformations and their Associated Symmetries in Geometry and Theoretical Physics. Annalen Phys., 17:631–690, 2008. doi: 10.1002/andp.200810324, arXiv:0808.2730.
[25] Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac. Quantised singularities in the electromagnetic field. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., A133(821):60–72, 1931. doi: 10.1098/rspa.1931.0130.
[26] Y. Aharonov and D. Bohm. Significance of electromagnetic potentials in the quantum theory. Phys. Rev., 115:485–491, 1959. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.115.485.
[27] Quoted in Freeman J. Dyson, Birds and Frogs: Selected Papers of Freeman Dyson, 1990–2014, World Scientific, Singapore, 2015, p. 47.
[28] M. Agostini et al. A test of electric from the Borexino experiment 28, an exquisitely radiopure liquid charge conservation with Borexino. Phys. Rev. Lett., 115:231802, 2015. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.231802, arXiv:1509.01223
[29] For further discussion, see Katherine A. Brading. Which symmetry? Noether, Weyl, and conservation of electric charge. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics, 33(1):3 – 22, 2002. doi:10.1016/S1355-2198(01)00033-8.
[30] W. Heisenberg. Der Teil und das Ganze: Gesprache im Umkreis der Atomphysik. Piper, München, 2006. p. 280. Am Anfang war die Symmetrie, das ist sicher richtiger als die Demokritsche These Am Anfang war das Teilchen. Die Elementarteilchen verkorpern die Symmetrien, sie sind ihre einfachsten Darstellungen, aber sie sind erst eine Folge der Symmetrien.
[31] See pp. 85–86 of The Noether Theorems, Ref. 2.
[32] Crowned by a Google doodle: https://www.google.com/doodles/emmy-noethers-133rd-birthday.
[33] Niels Bohr. Chemistry and The Quantum Theory of Atomic Constitution. J. Chem. Soc., pages 349–384, 1932. doi:10.1039/JR9320000349. VIII. Faraday Lecture, May 8, 1930. See p. 383.
[34] Niels Bohr, Hendrik A. Kramers, John C. Slater. The Quantum Theory of Radiation. Phil. Mag., 47:785–802, 1924. http://bit.ly/2ETtID3.
[35] For a commentary, see Helge Kragh. Bohr–Kramers–Slater Theory. In Daniel Greenberger, Klaus Hentschel, and Friedel Weinert, editors, Compendium of Quantum Physics, pages 62–64. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2009. doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-70626-7_19.
[36] Evariste Galois. OEuvres Mathématiques. Editions Jacques Gabay, Sceaux, 1989. Les OEuvres Mathématiques d’Evariste Galois ont été publiées dans le Journal de Liouville, Tome XI, année 1846, pp. 381-444. L'étude de Sophus Lie, Influence de Galois, a été publiée dans l’ouvrage Le Centenaire de l’Ecole Normale 1795-1895; http://bit.ly/2QZy0jt, Hachette 1895.
[37] Emil Artin. Galois theory. Dover Publications, Mineola, N.Y, 1998. ISBN 978-0486623429. second edition; edited and supplemented with a Section on Applications by Arthur N. Milgram.
[38] For an account from the perspective of six decades, see Saunders Mac Lane. Mathematics at Gottingen under the Nazis. Notices Amer. Math. Soc., 42: 1134–1138, 1995. http://www.ams.org/notices/199510/maclane.pdf.
[39] http://www.tollmien.com/noethertelegrammapril1933.html.
[40] Richard Courant and David Hilbert. Methods of Mathematical Physics, 2 vols. John Wiley Interscience, New York, 1953 & 1962.
[41] Tufts University Digital Collections and Archives. The Life and Work of Edward R. Murrow: Murrow at the International Institute of Education (IIE), 1932–1935. https://dca.lib.tufts.edu/features/murrow/exhibit/iie.html.
[42] Several interesting documents from the Edelstein Collection in the National Library of Israel appear in Hadar Ben-Yehuda. Emmy Noether: The Jewish Mathematician Who Changed the World. https://blog.nli.org.il/en/noether/, 2018.
[43] Max Born. My life: recollections of a Nobel laureate. Scribner, New York, 1978.See Part 2, Chapter III: Arrival of the Nazis.
[44] An extensive discussion of the drama of 1933 appears in chapters 15 and 16 of Constance Reid. Courant in Gottingen and New York : the story of an improbable mathematician. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1976.
[45] To Join Bryn Mawr. New York Times, page 23, 4 Oct 1933. https://nyti.ms/2Riprj6.
[46] Four of her Bryn Mawr students and Emmy Noether Fellows have contributed admiring recollections: Grace S. Quinn, Ruth S. McKee, Marguerite Lehr, and Olga Taussky. Emmy Noether in Bryn Mawr. In Bhama Srinivasan and Judith Sally, editors, Emmy Noether in Bryn Mawr : proceedings of a symposium, pages 139–146. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1983. For additional information about Noether's association with Bryn Mawr, see Qinna Shen. A Refugee Scholar from Nazi Germany: Emmy Noether and Bryn Mawr College. The Mathematical Intelligencer, 2019. doi: 10.1007/s00283-018-9852-0. https://repository.brynmawr.edu/german_pubs/19/.
[47] A. Einstein. The Late Emmy Noether; Professor Einstein Writes in Appreciation of a Fellow-Mathematician. New York Times, page 12, 4 May 1935. https://nyti.ms/2GJc4o1.
[48] Reprinted in Auguste Dick's Emmy Noether, 1882-1935, pp. 112–152.
[49] Reprinted in Auguste Dick's Emmy Noether, 1882-1935, pp. 153–179.
[50] B. L. van der Waerden. Algebra. Springer-Verlag, New York, 2003. Two volumes.
[51] Reprinted in Auguste Dick's Emmy Noether, 1882-1935, pp. 100–111.
[52] Chen-Ning Yang and Robert L. Mills. Conservation of Isotopic Spin and Isotopic Gauge Invariance. Phys. Rev., 96:191–195, 1954. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.96.191.
[53] Margaret W. Rossiter. Doctorates for American Women, 1868-1907. History of Education Quarterly, 22(2):159–183, 1982. doi: 10.2307/367747; and Walter Crosby Eells. Earned doctorates for women in the nineteenth century. AAUP Bulletin, 42(4):644–651, 1956. doi:10.2307/40222081.
[54] Ruth H Howes and Caroline L Herzenberg. Women physicists in the women's colleges. In After the War: Women in Physics in the United States, pages 5–1 to 5–18. Morgan & Claypool Publishers, 2015. doi:10.1088/978-1-6817-4094-2ch5.
额外的资料
1. Auguste Dick. Emmy Noether, 1882-1935. Birkhauser, Boston, 1981. https://archive.org/details/EmmyNoether1882-1935.
2. Martha K. Smith and James W. Brewer (editors). Emmy Noether : a tribute to her life and work. M. Dekker, New York, 1981.
3. Bhama Srinivasan and Judith Sally (Editors). Emmy Noether in Bryn Mawr: proceedings of a symposium. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1983.
4. H. A. Kastrup. The contribution of Emmy Noether, Felix Klein and Sophus Lie to the modern concept of symmetries in physical systems. In Manuel G. Doncel, Armin Hermann, Louis Michel, and Abraham Pais, editors, Symmetries in Physics (1600-1980), pages 115–163. Seminari d’Història de les Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra (Barcelona) Spain, 1987. http://bit.ly/2LG7gyl.
5. Leon M. Lederman and Christopher T. Hill. Symmetry and the Beautiful Universe. Prometheus, Amherst, N.Y, 2008.
6. Celebrating Emmy Noether, a symposium at the Institute for Advanced Study. https://www.ias.edu/ideas/2016/emmy-noether, 2016; History Working Group. Emmy Noether’s Paradise. The Institute Letter, Spring 2017. Institute for Advanced Study, http://bit.ly/2R2J0fU, page 8.
7. Olver, Peter J. Emmy Noether's Enduring Legacy in Symmetry. http://www-users.math.umn.edu/~olver/s_/noether.pdf, 2018.
8. Clark Kimberling. Emmy Noether, Greatest Woman Mathematician. The Mathematics Teacher, 75(3):246–249, 1982. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27962871.
9. Judy Green and Jeanne LaDuke. Pioneering Women in American Mathematics: The Pre-1940 PhD's. American Mathematical Society/London Mathematical Society, Providence & London, 2009. https://bookstore.ams.org/hmath-34; see also http://bit.ly/2VAR5qP.
10. Slides illustrating the colloquium on which this article is based are available at Chris Quigg. A Century of Noether's Theorem, August 2018. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1346275.
本文是作者于 2018 年 8 月 15 日在费米实验室给的专题讨论的文字部分,刊发于《返朴》。文章原标题为 Colloquium: A Century of Noether’s Theorem, https://arxiv.org/abs/1902.01989v2 。
# 作者简介 #
克里斯·奎格(Chris Quigg,1944-):美国费米国家加速器实验室(FNAL)的杰出名誉科学家。他曾在欧洲核子研究中心、巴黎高师、康奈尔大学和普林斯顿大学担任访问学者,并曾担任维也纳大学的埃尔文·薛定谔教授。他的研究涵盖了粒子物理学的许多主题,从重夸克到宇宙中微子。他在电弱对称性破坏和超级对撞机物理学方面的工作,获得了2011年美国物理学会樱井(J. J. Sakurai)奖,以表彰他在粒子理论方面的杰出成就,为费米实验室的Tevatron和CERN的大型强子对撞机(LHC)的探索指明了方向。他目前的研究重点是大型强子对撞机实验。
奎格是美国科学促进会和美国物理学会的会员。他曾获得 Alexander von Humboldt 高级科学家奖。作为美国物理学会粒子和场分部的主席,他领导了 2001 年关于粒子物理学未来的斯诺马斯(SNOWMAss)研究。他曾担任《物理评论快报》的部门副主编(1980-1983),《现代物理学评论》的副主编(1981-1993)和《核与粒子科学年度评论》的编辑(1994-2004)。他一直是欧洲核子研究中心未来环形对撞机计划的顾问。
奎格还致力于科学传播。他是费米实验室周六早晨物理项目的创始讲师,并为高中生和教师举办了关于科学性质的研讨会。他还定期为公众写作和演讲。他在工作之外喜欢在欧洲的长途小径上徒步旅行,喜欢烹饪。
原创 C. Quigg 返朴 2023-05-08 08:50 发表于上海 |
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